The Processes Of Conceptualisation And Operationalisation Social Work Essay

The Processes Of Conceptualisation And Operationalisation Social Work Essay This paper will begin by examining what is meant by conceptualisation. Using examples, it will demonstrate how broad theories are narrowed down to mid-range theories showing how this refinement can aid a practical and achievable study, within a realistic timeframe. This essay will then introduce the process of operationalisation and explain how variables and indicators are used as aids in specifying exactly what is being observed. The subject of child abuse will be used throughout the paper where different appropriate examples will be used to clarify meaning. Two reports in particular, The Murphy Report (2009) and The Ryan Report (2009) both child abuse studies will be used. This essay will further clarify the conceptualisation and operationalisation processes by outlining the three main steps involved. These steps will be explained and examples of their use in research studies will be demonstrated. In all research studies great emphasis is placed on the accuracy of information presented. As such, reliability and validity will be briefly discussed at the concluding section on indicators. This paper will then present a summary of the main points of this essay. To conclude, this paper will emphasise the importance of employing the processes of conceptualisation and operationalisation to a research study. Social researchers are concerned with examining the relationship between human interactions of people and the society in which they live in. It is not possible however, to do a broad study on human interactions and society in one research project. Researchers therefore, will concentrate on a specific aspect of some social issue. This process begins with a definition of the chosen topic, for example assuming the topic was based on poverty. There are different elements that need to be considered. Poverty could include income poverty, living conditions, diet or any other element that prohibits people from fully partaking in society (Lister, 2004). Before a study begins, the researcher should ideally determine what aspect of poverty is to be examined. It may be for example, the impact of a reduction in child benefit to families already living below meridian income level. Here a researcher may concentrate his or her study on how even lower income further prohibits families from fully participating in society. In this case the researcher may use the theory of social exclusion. However, social exclusion is a very broad concept and researchers will generally look at other, mid range theories or form their own, for example, reducing benefits to lower income families can have effects on childrens health. Having determined which aspect of poverty to study, the researcher will then decide what it is, and what it is not, they are trying to find out. This process is part of what is termed conceptualisation (Geraghty, 2008). Conceptualisation is the process of narrowing down, confining, defining and explaining, what it is, that is being examined. It is concerned with what is meant by a term (Geraghty, 2008). In undertaking research studies, the researcher has to be clear about what aspect of a social phenomenon is being studied. Just as importantly, the completed study must also demonstrate to the readers, that the study has dealt with and answered the specific starting research question. To demonstrate what has been explained thus far, this essay will take an appropriate example to convey more clearly how conceptualisation works. In Ireland over the last two decades there has been extensive media focus and attention on Child Abuse. Considering child abuse as a research study, it is important to understand the scale and scope of the topic. One of the first things to be considered is the definition of child abuse. As the example is taken from an Irish context, it is appropriate to quote The Commission to Inquire into Child Abuse Act, 2000 which states child abuse as: The wilful, reckless or negligent infliction of physical injury on, or failure to prevent such injury to, the child. The use of the child by a person for sexual arousal or sexual gratification of that person or another person. Failure to care for the child, which results in serious impairment of the physical or mental health or development of the child or serious adverse effects on his or her behaviour or welfare. Any other act or omission towards the child which results in serious impairment of the physical or mental health or development of the child or serious adverse effects on his or her behaviour or welfare. (The Commission to Inquire Into Child Abuse Act, 2000 ). From this definition it can be deducted, there are four main types of abuse that constitute the concept of Child Abuse in Ireland. These are physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse and emotional abuse. In undertaking research on Child Abuse, the researcher may confine the study to one aspect, such as neglect. This may be further refined by looking at a hypothesis or theory of neglect as a topic such as, the impact of parental drug dependency on Irish children within the family. By narrowing down and focussing on specific research questions related to the topic it is easier to produce a relevant, meaningful and practical research study. Conversely, if a researcher were to ignore this approach and deal with the topic of Child Abuse only as a topic, there are many aspects and questions that would have to be considered. These could include all the different types of abuse at an international level over huge timeframes. To further examine and explain the process of conceptualisation this es say will give another example from an actual Irish research on Child Sexual Abuse. The Murphy report (2009) was commissioned to examine the allegations and suspicions of child sexual abuse against clerics in the Archdiocese of Dublin over the period 1975 to 2004. The author takes this report as a further example of conceptualisation as it specifically details exactly what it was set up to find out. It examines allegations of child abuse against clerics; here it is not concerned with lay people or other children. The study was confined to the Archdiocese of Dublin, not Ireland as a whole. Finally, the report was focussed only on the period spanning 1975 through to 2005. This conceptualisation made it very clear what exactly the research was to encapsulate. The previous paragraphs discussed specification of meaning of terms whilst this example demonstrates evidence of clarification of concepts. The Operationalisation process is also concerned with specification but on a different more detailed scale. Operationalisation is a process where certain variables are employed as aids in specifying what exactly is being observed and just as importantly, specifying and demonstrating, how exactly observation will be carried out. It is important to understand what is meant by the term variable. In defining the term Giddens explains it as: A dimension along which an object, individual or group may be categorised, such as income or height, allowing specific comparisons with others or over time (Giddens, 2001,p.701). Other concepts such as class or satisfaction can not be observed (Bell, 2005). Ways of measurement must therefore be determined. Rose and Sullivan (1996) are cited by Bell (2005:p.139) to show how the concept of class might be measurable. They write that: If we wish to understand something about class (a concept and therefore†¦not observable), what can we observe in the world which manifests class? That is, what indicators can be used for class so that we can obtain data about class? This is the essence of the measurement problem and when we link an unobservable concept with an observable indicator we are producing operationalisations. (Rose and Sullivan 1996:12-13). The authors do not expand on this quote but indicators of class for example may be based on salary, housing or education. These are elements of the concept of class and are measurable. In the previous example of The Murphy Report the term Child Abuse was seen to be defined under four main headings. These could also be taken as the variables, a specification of what aspects of child abuse will be researched. Continuing with the operationalisation process, having identified variables the researcher will then need to devise indicators to measure the concept (Bryman,2004). Thus far this paper has attempted to portray an understanding of conceptualisation and operationalisation. In doing so, it was also necessary to include references to variables and indicators. The next section of this paper necessitates further explanations of these terms. The three main steps in these processes are defining concepts, identifying variables and developing measurement indicators (Geraghty, 2008). This paper will outline each of these and provide appropriate examples that are continuing on the subject of child abuse. In examining what is meant by conceptualisation this paper explained the complexity of undertaking a broad research and detailed ways in which a subject or topic could be narrowed down and refined. Geraghty (2008) explains it as using a theory to identify concepts at the core of a research study. An example of poverty was given at the start of this paper demonstrating different elements of the topic that could merit a research study on their own, for example income poverty. Defining concepts also involves researching current and previous definitions on the subject. Previously in this paper a definition of child abuse was taken from The Commission to Inquire into Child Abuse Act, 2000. A definition from an American study over twenty years earlier gives a legal definition as: The physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of 18 by a person who is responsible for the childs welfare under circumstances which indicate the childs health or welfare is harmed or threatened thereby.'( Bradbard and Watkins, 1982). Although these definitions are similar to a degree there are some differences that may be important in specifying elements of a concept. The Irish definition for example does not specify an age level whereas the American definition specifies under the age of eighteen. The Irish example does not specify that the abuse is by a person who is responsible for the childs health or welfare. There are many other definitions of abuse that may also include exploitation or other elements as a variable. What is seen as abuse in one culture may be accepted as normal practice in another, such as child marriages. Researching such definitions helps to give a clearer aspect of a concept and may be useful in identifying other relevant elements for consideration. Having looked at defining a concept the next step is to identify variables. Identifying variables is an important part of the conceptualisation and operationalisation process. It involves examining different dimensions of a topic that need to be considered to capture exactly what is being observed (Geraghty, 2008). As with defining concepts it is important to research previous studies to capture what variables other researchers used and how they applied them (Geraghty, 2008). Previously this paper referred to the Murphy Report (2009), which was primarily concerned with child sexual abuse and clerical involvement. In this case only the sexual element of abuse was researched. Taking sexual abuse as the subject necessitates determining variables of Child Sexual Abuse. These may include social status, incest and institutional settings. Another report, the Ryan Report (2009) studied Child Abuse in Irish Industrial schools and childrens institutions spanning several decades up to 1974. This report, in dealing with child abuse broke abuse into four variables; physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse and emotional abuse. There has been huge media attention on the subject of child sexual abuse in Ireland, so much so that there may be a tendency to automatically assume that the term child abuse is relating to sexual abuse. However, by conceptualising and breaking the term into variables, child abuse captures other aspects which are just as important in their own right. In an editorial from Child Links, Barnardos on the subject of child abuse categories say: Of these, the largest number of cases that come to the attention of the authorities are cases of child neglect. In 2003, of the 4,984 children who were in State care, 24% of these children had been neglected. Yet it is the sexual abuse cases that are highlighted more in the media. (Conroy, p.9). This quote along with the example of the Ryan report demonstrates how the use of variables more readily captures elements of child abuse that might otherwise have been overlooked. Variables are important in identifying aspects of a concept to be studied. There is also a need to measure the information and data accumulated under each variable or show what was used to determine the data. At this juncture the third and final step of the conceptualisation and operationalisation process will be explained. Indicators are measures that should link to the variable. There can be numerous indicators for each variable depending on the research subject. In taking the variable of neglect for example, it could be measured using a number of indicators that may themselves be broken down to further indicators. One indicator may be a physical indicator from which other indicators may be taken, such as loss of weight, poor or inadequate shelter or poor health. Another indicator such as behavioural could be broken down to further indicators such as leaving school early, alcohol abuse or crime. The Disabled Persons Protection Commission in Massachusetts USA (2010) lists twenty-three separate indicators for physical abuse including burns, scalds, bites, cuts and more. Indicators can be used to determine the presence or absence of what is being researched (Geraghty, 2008). However, not all researches may require so many, Bryman (2004) argues that in much quantitative research there may be only one indicator of a concept used. Although indicators are extremely useful in research, care must be taken, especially in areas like child abuse, as even with indicators, signs are not always readily visible. In its national guidelines for the protection and welfare of children (2004) the Department of Health and Children expressed caution on this when issuing their own guidelines. To conclude this section on indicators it is important to understand that the indicator used should stand up to accurate measurement. In social research, validating examines the accuracy of measurement and is considered the most important criterion in social research (Geraghty, 2008). Another important criterion in social research is reliability. Reliability estimates the consistency of procedures used for collecting data even at different times with different subjects (Geraghty, 2008). Validity and Reliability as discussed are key criteria in research and merit a separate paper to fully explain their importance in research studies. The author has introduced them at this point to show that not only are indicators useful in breaking research studies down into manageable portions they are critical components necessary for the validation of a study. This essay commenced by referring to the complexity of undertaking a broad research study. An example of the term poverty was presented as a broad theory that encapsulates many dimensions, such as income poverty and childrens health. The author explained how broad based theories can be broken down into mid range theories through the use of an appropriate research question. The example proffered being, how the reduction of benefits could affect childrens health. This demonstrated that in breaking down the theory of poverty it is easier to determine what exactly the researcher is trying to find out. The author identified this process as conceptualisation. The operationalisation process was then outlined, specifying the importance of understanding how exactly, observation should be conducted. The three main steps of the process of conceptualisation and operationalisation , defining concepts, identifying variables and development indicators were outlined. In doing this, examples of the Murphy and Ryan reports were used to demonstrate all three of these steps. The essay concluded with measurement indicators and stressed their importance not only as tools in observation through measurement but also as vital components of validity and reliability criteria. Although it is possible to undertake a research study without the employment of detailed methodologies, a research can be more focussed with an investigative plan. Whilst this paper did not look at the many and varied tools of research methodology, it did however concentrate on useful and important processes that help ensure that correct and relevant information is gathered. The purpose of any research is to gather information on a subject or social issue. Employing methods that ensure the correct, measurable data is gathered in relation to the subject is well served using the processes of conceptualisation and operationalistion.

Play in Childhood Essay

Play is one of the most defining features of childhood in Western society. It is something that all children have in common and what makes a child’s world different from adults. In answering the question, this essay will first examine the different opinions held by theorists as to why children play. I will then look at role play, which is one of the many types of play that children engage in. Finally I will look at children’s play as a social process using examples from other cultures and then briefly consider the reasons that children themselves believe they play. It is wrong to assume that children have always played. Historian, Aries (1962 in Book 1 Understanding Childhood Chapter 2) claimed that childhood was a social construction and that the view of childhood as a separate state did not occur until around the 16th and 17th century – before this, children were economically useful and not valued for the simple joy that children can bring. This was further illustrated by Mayhew (1861 in Book 1 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1), who’s observations from his meeting with the watercress girl led him to state that she had been deprived of her childhood. This was largely due to the fact that the girl’s work responsibilities did not allow time for play and she had no knowledge of parks or anything associated with play. From this it could be deduced that Mayhew felt children should play. Mayhew’s example also showed that play is a social construction, as although it was clear that the ‘watercress girl’ did not play, the fact that Mayhew suggests this is abnormal may simply be constructed from his own opinions that childhood should be a time of play. One of the first attempts to explain the importance of play came from the publication of Emile by Jean Jacques Rousseau in (1762 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1). In this, Rousseau emphasized that childhood should be a time of play and children should have the freedom to do this. For Rousseau, play is consistent with a happy healthy childhood, which is often linked with the romantic discourse. This is in contrast with the Puritan discourse which believes that allowing children to play is a risk to the civilization processes, as this can only be achieved through strict discipline. It also believes parents should be responsible for channeling children’s play into creative forms of work which will help  children to learn morally and intellectually. It is obvious therefore that these theories differ in their approaches to play. For the Romantic perspective – play is a way that children can express themselves, but for the Puritan approach, play is the way throu gh which children learn. Other opinions, such as those from developmentalist’s like as Piaget (1896 – 1980 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) saw play as an opportunity where children learn, practice and consolidate new skills and furthermore play provides them with a time where failing during a task was not going to have disastrous consequences. Vygotsky’s view on the reason why children play is different (1896-1934 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) as he believed that play was a crucial part in children’s social development in that it helps them acquire skills to learn to cop-operate with others. Play is also important for children’s cognitive development as children use psychological tools during play such as language and memory. Through play children learn, explore and extend their skills, for example Vygotsky suggested that when children play ‘make-believe’, they can experiment with adult roles and ways of that otherwise wouldn’t’t be possible for them. It is obvious therefore that for Piaget and Vygotsky, the reason children play is to learn. However, psychoanalysts like Freud(1920 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) were more interested in the significance of play for their emotional development, suggesting that a child’s psyche could be revealed through their play. Freud suggested from his research that play could have a therapeutic effect as it allowed children to rid themselves of negative feelings. Freud’s views were the building block for others like his daughter Anna who set up nursery for children during the second world war and recognised that observing children’s play had potential as a method of diagnosis, as well as being of therapeutic value for children who had experienced emotional trauma in their lives. Similarly, Klein used miniature dolls as resources that children could use to enact out their inner feelings and anxieties. This shows that psychologists such as Klein and both Anna and Sigmund Freud felt that children play to deal with emotional events in their lives. There are several different types of play, but I shall concentrate on role play now and why children engage in this type of play. This has been widely researched by Mead (1934 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1),who felt pretend and make believe situations are crucial for children’s personal development. Through role play, children are able to imagine themselves in other roles which helps their developing sense of identity, and through this children develop a sense of who they are and also how others see them. This was highlighted in Activity 2 (p8 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) which contained an extract from Bascom’s (1969 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) research in Nigeria. It involved interviewing a father while his 3 children observed the process and invented a new game from these observations. The activity asked us to think about the significance of this new game. The first child sat on ‘Bascom’s’ chair holding a pen and paper; the second child sat in the ‘interpreter’s’ chair (occupied previous to this by their father) while the third child sat on the bench imitating the ‘informer’. In the example, the second child told the third child to tell the first child about Odua. The third child then replied and from this the second child ‘interpreted’ this and relayed it to the ‘anthropologist’ in a string of meaningless sounds, supposedly echoing the English language. The first child who was meant to be the anthropologist then wrote on the paper and replied in more meaningless sounds, and so the sequence was repeated. The role-play that the Yoruba children undertook involved skilful imitation to impersonate the 3 adults and their gestures, even their language and the sequence of events. A similar study occurred in the UK by Kehily et al (2002in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) whose research was carried out through extensive interviews which were audio taped with children in their school. It was found that children incorporated the tape recorder into their games and discussions often imitating the structure of the interview process, even when they weren’t being recorded. Both of these researches on role play support Meads theory (1934 in Book 3  Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) that children have the ability to observe others and then use these observations to imitate others. The reasons children do this according to Mead is that it helps them to make sense of new and unfamiliar situations. Role play is further explored in video 3 band 3 ‘pretend play’ featuring Melissa and Hadleigh aged 4, playing mummy and baby at nursery school. This example further supports Mead’s claim by showing that pretend play helps children to act out imaginary roles. Perhaps one of the most important features of play is that it is a social process. Thomas Gregor (1977in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) studied children’s games in Mehinaku, Brazil, and believed that games mirrored the structure and values of adult society. He observed a game of teneju itai (women’s sons), this involved children marrying and carving a baby from a lump of earth. The ‘mother’ then mimics cradling the baby, which later dies, and is ‘buried’ in a hole. As early childhood death is a common occurrence for this Brazilian tribe, this game prepares children for the possible death of a sibling or playmate. This game also shows it is non competitive, did not involve hierarchies and did not identify winners or losers. In contrast, in the UK, Laura and Aalliyah (Video 3 band 3) use their imaginations in their role play acting out difficult emotions such as rivalry, conflict and death. These children are in a culture where they are protected from issues such as death and pretend play may offer children a way of exploring themes and issues that are not part of their daily life. Both examples also support Freud’s theory that children use play to act worrying or troublesome situations, and that play is a way in which children can express their feelings. Play, as a social process is not always a positive experience as Mead’s theory seemed to suggest. During play children can have many decisions to make and negotiate such as who can or can’t play, meaning play can sometimes produce power relations and social hierarchies amongst children. This was shown in research by Thorne (1999 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) who’s observations found that in the games that they played, children  created gender boundaries with single sex friendships, and that children may use play to achieve a position of high status within their group. Furthermore, play helps children’s identities develop as research with boys in Western societies showed that the play which boys engaged in involved language and physicality which was often competitive, and that they engaged in this type of play in order to help them achieve their masculine identity. This was further supported by research by Epstein (1997 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) which suggested that children engage in skipping rhymes and games such as ‘kiss chase’ in the playground in order to help construct their gender identity. Finally, it was also suggested by Back (1990 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) that the play that these boys engaged in was not just play for playing sake but was also a method used to test the boundaries of friendship, and to decide who was or was not included in their ‘group’. Finally, as the research so far has been from adults, it is important to consider what children’s views are on why they play. One reason why children play is that it is a time when they can withdraw from reality and create their own fantasy world. This is seen with Joshua, (VIDEO 3 BAND1) who’s favourite type of play seems to be reading. He states that he reads because through doing this he can escape into an imaginary world. He reads, believing it to be important as it broadens his imagination and aids his learning. This example also shows that as well as being a social process, play can also be solitary. This video also shows Tinco who states that he plays at the temple to find peace and freedom which he does not experience in his home village. The reason Sean seems to play is that he enjoys being in the dark tunnel with his friends playing scary, daring games. These examples show simply that children themselves play for reasons such as to learn, find enjoyment and to have peace and freedom away from adults. These examples showed that it is evident all children play but the way they play can vary depending upon culture. This was also highlighted by Opie and Opie (1969) who researched on children’s playground culture which found that  the same rhyming games had been around for a long time, they just varied from culture to culture. We have seen therefore that different approaches have contrasting reasons as to why children play, and furthermore that children have different reasons as to why they play.One type of play which children engage in is role play which has been said to play an important part in the development of children enabling them to make sense of situations and form identities. Furthermore, children play as it is a social process which allows children to act out roles in order to help them make sense of situations around them, enabling them to gain an understanding of how others see them which in turn aids their identity development. REFERENCES Book 1 Understanding Childhood Chapter 2 U212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University, Milton KeynesBook 1 Understanding Childhood Chapter 6 U212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University, Milton KeynesBook 3 Understanding Childhood, Chapter 1 U212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University, Milton KeynesBook 3 Understanding Childhood, Study Guide Audio and Visual notes, Unit 16 U212, The Open University, Milton KeynesBook 3, Understanding Childhood,; Video 3 band 1; My SpaceU212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University. Book 3, Understanding Childhood,; Video 3 band 3; Pretend PlayU212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University.

Marketing – Converse Case Study

Converse Case Study Creating a marketing strategy isn’t always about taking a hands-on approach and facilitating how consumers should think of a certain brand. Converse All Stars took an alternative route, a â€Å"stand-back approach† giving its customers control over marketing its shoe brand. As a result, Converse delivered a customer-brand relationship where the needs, wants and demands of its customers were met by a pair of All Star Chucks.The needs, wants and demand of customers is a major customer and marketplace concept. Human â€Å"needs† are states of felt deprivation that could be of a physical need like for food and clothing, social need like for affection or individual needs like for learning or self-expression. Wants are forms of needs that are derived from cultures and individual personality (i. e. specific types of food like Asian, American or Mexican are specific wants for food).Demands of customers are also factored in when customers’ wants are supported by their ability to make purchases. Relating this to the Converse case study, Converse’s customers demonstrated a physical need for clothing or shoes in this case as well as an individual need for self-expression, and their wants were derived from Converse’s simple, affordable and classy style and â€Å"no-brand† brand, a specific culture and type of personality that consumers affiliated with Converse.Converse’s culture of self-expression became the reason why it was wanted and thereby demanded by consumers who had buying power. Converse understood this concept well as it was able to capture value from its customer by enabling them to customize and individualize their pair of Chucks, thus creating a market offering that became an integral part of Converse’s marketing success.

The Bleaching Of Coral And Its Effects On Human Activities

Corals are greatly complex organisms that help buffer the ocean and provided an ecosystem for many other marine organisms but the coral and therefore these ecosystems are in immense threat. The decrease of coral cover is increasing with a 50% decrease seen from the years 1985-2012 (1). This is not just due to the natural threats of predators like COTS and large scale weather events like cyclones but also due to human activities such as overfishing, pollution, disturbance in the reef and global warming. The bleaching of coral due to natural activities can be hard to control but the negative effects caused by human activities can be. Although if the reefs have any hope of recovery drastic actions needs to be taken to reduce carbon emissions, and to control policing and protection of these areas. COTS Outbreaks COTS or Crown of Thorn Starfish are important to the reefs ecosystems to maintain numbers fasting growing specie of coral by eating them to allow slower growing corals to grow creating a more diverse ecosystem (2). But due to large scale outbreak of COTS the negative effects of too much coral decline has been seen and with the 50% decrease of coral seen over the last 30 years COTS have been responsible for 25% of it (3). The overgrazing of the coral by these Starfish and their negative effects on the corals has seen them become a real threat to the ecosystem this correlation can be seen in graph 1. Overfishing Fishing on the Great Barrier Reef both recreational andShow MoreRelated The Effects of Global Warming On Coral Reefs Essay976 Words   |  4 PagesThe Effects of Global Warming On Coral Reefs Graphs Missing Introduction: The effects of global warming touch every human, animal, plant, ocean, landmass, and atmosphere level on this planet. 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